Of Belief & Time
Religion and economics. Such a bizarre combination, but one that is so necessary in understanding both. Religion—spirituality, more specifically—is completely subjective; it is a pure faith in some greater being or force of nature. There is no way of objectively proving God (or any greater being, which will be referred to as God from here on for simplicity’s sake) exists. Only through faith, not emotionless observation, can people find God. Conversely, economics is a completely objective science. There are no shoulds or woulds or coulds in economics; they only observe what happens based on mathematics and logical thought. In this way, religion and economics are stark opposites. In this way, “the religionist and the economist are obligated to collaborate in seeking ends and discovering effective ways of achieving them” (Knight & Merriam, 1945, p.219), and this is what I am attempting to do.
One of the early obstacles faced in the formulation of this project was the specification of my research. Going into the year, I knew I wanted to study something about religion. As a religious person, I am intrigued in learning about different faiths. As an academic, I am always curious as to why people act the way they do. More specifically, I have always wondered, to some degree, why people have certain preferences. I needed a way of combining these two ideas, and I found it by studying how people’s religion affects how they spend their time.
Dr. Azim Shariff explores religion’s influence on the individual in his priming experiment. He found that by priming people with God or moral concepts (e.g. prophet, salvation, justice, et al), people would tend to donate more money to anonymous strangers (Shariff & Norenzayan, 2007).
Religion plays an important role in human history as well as in the individual. Studies show that religion allows for complex societies to form and function by ascribing a set of common rules to follow (Campante, 2013). This is true not only of Western cultures, but in Eastern ones as well (Purzycki, 2016). Furthermore, religion promotes social interconnectedness. Based on the assumption that religion influences history, and history influences human actions, this study suggests that Christians and Muslims use kinship and reciprocity heuristics to promote interconnectedness (Henrich, et al, 2011). Such a relationship can be reversed, as shown in Dr. Johnathan Gruber’s (2005) study on the relationship between religion and market density. Results suggest that religious participation increases when surrounded by similar religious groups (i.e. Italian Catholics living next to Swedish Lutherans found it more difficult to practice Catholicism than Italian Catholics living next to Polish Catholics) (Gruber, 2005). Such evidence supports the conclusion that religion and social behavior is tightly interwoven. But what does this have to do with economics? Economics is not about money, but the scientific study of choice. People choose to participate in religion just as they choose to socialize with their neighbors. Such measurements, therefore, relates economics directly to religion.
Religion impacts productivity, too. Protestant work ethic promotes efficiency, and a fear of hell may inhibit crime (Shariff & Rhemulla, 2012) and promote economic growth (Eum, 2011). Such research suggests that belief in hell is more powerful than a belief in heaven. This seems counterintuitive; the whole concept of eternal peace in exchange for a dutiful life is the basis of investment. Invest in God, and you will receive infinite return on investment: eternal peace (Fitzgerald, 2009). For some reason, however, research shows that people are more motivated to live a “moral” life if they fear being sent to eternal chaos (hell) than losing the chance of eternal peace (heaven). Such differences, and the mechanisms that comprise them, offer a potential direction of study.
Shariff and Rhemtulla’s results are nicely summarized, “criminal activity is lower in societies where people’s religious beliefs contain a strong punitive component versus locations where religious beliefs are more benevolent” (Cooper, 2013, para. 12). Studies showing how belief in hell can be more powerful in preventing negative, antisocial behavior are done on a macro scale. It does not show how such beliefs affect individuals.
That is why I want to study how the ratio of consumable and capital time is affected by an individual’s belief in heaven and hell. My study would be comparing the ratio of time allocated to the ratio of belief believe in heaven to hell. I need to find a way to measure each element, and I need to collect data as to people’s allocation of time and their degree to which they believe in heaven and in hell.
Because there are many religions, many of which do not involve a concept of heaven or hell, these terms are used broadly, in the same way God is used as a broad concept. Just as God is used to refer to the transcendent being or force that drives natural processes, heaven and hell are terms that represent far larger bodies of thought. Heaven represents a benevolent God; it is the positive reinforcement given to the individual for living a moral life. Conversely, hell represents a merciless and punitive God; it is the punishment given to the sinner.
As for the other variable, time allocation will be measured by comparing capital time to consumable time for an average week (or day), holding other activities such as sleep, personal care, and work as constants. Capital time refers to any time spent bettering the individual, his or her community, or his or her world. This may include volunteering, attending a church service or bible study group, or taking a knitting class. To put loosely, capital time is time spent bettering the future. Consumable time, on the contrary, is any time spent toward no particular goal. This includes phone usage, television watching, and YouTube surfing. Such consumed time does not better anyone’s future, particularly the individual’s.
If the evidence that societies with a higher belief in hell than in heaven inhibits antisocial behavior and stimulates economic growth is true (Shariff & Rhemtulla, 2012), then it can be predicted that people who believe in hell, or have a more negative view of God, will spend their more of their time participating in capital activity than in consumable ones.
Such a study would add to the small pool of research into the relationship between economics and religion. It would also further show the importance of studying and reconciling opposites. Economics, being entirely objective, and religion, being entirely subjective, need to be reconciled to further either subject’s arguments. If I can show the impact of religion on people’s choices, then maybe I can show them the importance of believing.
One of the early obstacles faced in the formulation of this project was the specification of my research. Going into the year, I knew I wanted to study something about religion. As a religious person, I am intrigued in learning about different faiths. As an academic, I am always curious as to why people act the way they do. More specifically, I have always wondered, to some degree, why people have certain preferences. I needed a way of combining these two ideas, and I found it by studying how people’s religion affects how they spend their time.
Dr. Azim Shariff explores religion’s influence on the individual in his priming experiment. He found that by priming people with God or moral concepts (e.g. prophet, salvation, justice, et al), people would tend to donate more money to anonymous strangers (Shariff & Norenzayan, 2007).
Religion plays an important role in human history as well as in the individual. Studies show that religion allows for complex societies to form and function by ascribing a set of common rules to follow (Campante, 2013). This is true not only of Western cultures, but in Eastern ones as well (Purzycki, 2016). Furthermore, religion promotes social interconnectedness. Based on the assumption that religion influences history, and history influences human actions, this study suggests that Christians and Muslims use kinship and reciprocity heuristics to promote interconnectedness (Henrich, et al, 2011). Such a relationship can be reversed, as shown in Dr. Johnathan Gruber’s (2005) study on the relationship between religion and market density. Results suggest that religious participation increases when surrounded by similar religious groups (i.e. Italian Catholics living next to Swedish Lutherans found it more difficult to practice Catholicism than Italian Catholics living next to Polish Catholics) (Gruber, 2005). Such evidence supports the conclusion that religion and social behavior is tightly interwoven. But what does this have to do with economics? Economics is not about money, but the scientific study of choice. People choose to participate in religion just as they choose to socialize with their neighbors. Such measurements, therefore, relates economics directly to religion.
Religion impacts productivity, too. Protestant work ethic promotes efficiency, and a fear of hell may inhibit crime (Shariff & Rhemulla, 2012) and promote economic growth (Eum, 2011). Such research suggests that belief in hell is more powerful than a belief in heaven. This seems counterintuitive; the whole concept of eternal peace in exchange for a dutiful life is the basis of investment. Invest in God, and you will receive infinite return on investment: eternal peace (Fitzgerald, 2009). For some reason, however, research shows that people are more motivated to live a “moral” life if they fear being sent to eternal chaos (hell) than losing the chance of eternal peace (heaven). Such differences, and the mechanisms that comprise them, offer a potential direction of study.
Shariff and Rhemtulla’s results are nicely summarized, “criminal activity is lower in societies where people’s religious beliefs contain a strong punitive component versus locations where religious beliefs are more benevolent” (Cooper, 2013, para. 12). Studies showing how belief in hell can be more powerful in preventing negative, antisocial behavior are done on a macro scale. It does not show how such beliefs affect individuals.
That is why I want to study how the ratio of consumable and capital time is affected by an individual’s belief in heaven and hell. My study would be comparing the ratio of time allocated to the ratio of belief believe in heaven to hell. I need to find a way to measure each element, and I need to collect data as to people’s allocation of time and their degree to which they believe in heaven and in hell.
Because there are many religions, many of which do not involve a concept of heaven or hell, these terms are used broadly, in the same way God is used as a broad concept. Just as God is used to refer to the transcendent being or force that drives natural processes, heaven and hell are terms that represent far larger bodies of thought. Heaven represents a benevolent God; it is the positive reinforcement given to the individual for living a moral life. Conversely, hell represents a merciless and punitive God; it is the punishment given to the sinner.
As for the other variable, time allocation will be measured by comparing capital time to consumable time for an average week (or day), holding other activities such as sleep, personal care, and work as constants. Capital time refers to any time spent bettering the individual, his or her community, or his or her world. This may include volunteering, attending a church service or bible study group, or taking a knitting class. To put loosely, capital time is time spent bettering the future. Consumable time, on the contrary, is any time spent toward no particular goal. This includes phone usage, television watching, and YouTube surfing. Such consumed time does not better anyone’s future, particularly the individual’s.
If the evidence that societies with a higher belief in hell than in heaven inhibits antisocial behavior and stimulates economic growth is true (Shariff & Rhemtulla, 2012), then it can be predicted that people who believe in hell, or have a more negative view of God, will spend their more of their time participating in capital activity than in consumable ones.
Such a study would add to the small pool of research into the relationship between economics and religion. It would also further show the importance of studying and reconciling opposites. Economics, being entirely objective, and religion, being entirely subjective, need to be reconciled to further either subject’s arguments. If I can show the impact of religion on people’s choices, then maybe I can show them the importance of believing.
References
Campante, F. and Yanagizawa-Drott, D. (2013). Does Religion Affect Economic Growth and Happiness? Evidence from Ramadan. Harvard Kennedy School.
Cooper, Matt. (2013, July 4). Researcher: Religion Influences Behavior – Both Good and Bad (Blog Post). University of Oregon: Around the O. Retrieved from: https://around.uoregon.edu/content/researcher-religion-influences-behavior-%E2%80%94-both-good-and-bad.
Eum, Wonsub. (2011). Religion and Economic Development: A Study of Religious Variables Influencing GDP Growth Over Countries. University of California, Berkley.
Fitzgerald, M. (2009). Satan, The Great Motivator. Boston.com. Retrieved from: http://archive.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2009/11/15/the_curious_economic_effects_of_religion/.
Gruber, J.H. (2005). Religious Market Structure, Religious Participation, and Outcomes: Is Religion Good for You? Advances in Economic Analysis & Policy 5 (1). 1-30.
Henrich, J., Ensminger, J., McElreath, R., Barr, A., Barrett, C., Bolyanatz, A… Ziker, J. (2011). Markets, Religion, Community Size, and the Evolution of Fairness and Punishment. Science, 327. 1480-1484.
Knight, F. H. and Merriam, T.W. (1945). The Economic Order and Religion. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 13:4: 219.
Purzycki, B.G., Apicella, C., Atkinson, Q.D., Cohen, E., McNamara, R.A., Willard, A.K.,…Hendrich, J. (2016). Moralistic gods, supernatural punishment and the expansion of human sociality. Nature 00: 00. doi: 10.1038.
Shariff AF, Rhemtulla M (2012) Divergent Effects of Beliefs in Heaven and Hell on National Crime Rates. PLoS ONE 7(6): e39048. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039048.
Shariff, A. F. & Norenzayan, A. (2007). God Is Watching You: Priming God Concepts Increases Prosocial Behavior in an Anonymous Economic Game. Association for Psychological Science, 18 (9), 803-809.
Cooper, Matt. (2013, July 4). Researcher: Religion Influences Behavior – Both Good and Bad (Blog Post). University of Oregon: Around the O. Retrieved from: https://around.uoregon.edu/content/researcher-religion-influences-behavior-%E2%80%94-both-good-and-bad.
Eum, Wonsub. (2011). Religion and Economic Development: A Study of Religious Variables Influencing GDP Growth Over Countries. University of California, Berkley.
Fitzgerald, M. (2009). Satan, The Great Motivator. Boston.com. Retrieved from: http://archive.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2009/11/15/the_curious_economic_effects_of_religion/.
Gruber, J.H. (2005). Religious Market Structure, Religious Participation, and Outcomes: Is Religion Good for You? Advances in Economic Analysis & Policy 5 (1). 1-30.
Henrich, J., Ensminger, J., McElreath, R., Barr, A., Barrett, C., Bolyanatz, A… Ziker, J. (2011). Markets, Religion, Community Size, and the Evolution of Fairness and Punishment. Science, 327. 1480-1484.
Knight, F. H. and Merriam, T.W. (1945). The Economic Order and Religion. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 13:4: 219.
Purzycki, B.G., Apicella, C., Atkinson, Q.D., Cohen, E., McNamara, R.A., Willard, A.K.,…Hendrich, J. (2016). Moralistic gods, supernatural punishment and the expansion of human sociality. Nature 00: 00. doi: 10.1038.
Shariff AF, Rhemtulla M (2012) Divergent Effects of Beliefs in Heaven and Hell on National Crime Rates. PLoS ONE 7(6): e39048. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039048.
Shariff, A. F. & Norenzayan, A. (2007). God Is Watching You: Priming God Concepts Increases Prosocial Behavior in an Anonymous Economic Game. Association for Psychological Science, 18 (9), 803-809.