The Correlation Between Religious Beliefs and Time Allocation Ratios
Emma R. Lai
March 24, 2017
Abstract
This research aims to find and identify an association between religious belief and time allocation. Results from the survey identified a significant difference in the time allocation ratios in religious groups versus the “other” religious group. Time allocation ratios were determined by dividing capital and consumer activities. Capital activities are any time spent productively, including any activity done for the benefit of the mind or other people: organizing finances, exercising, family time, reading, reflecting, creative activities. Consumer activities are any wasted time, such as spending time on social media, television, video games, or friends. The results show a significant difference between the “Other” religious group and other religious groups based on an alpha value on p < .1. Due to the limitations of this study, the results are not necessarily accurate. However, the results imply that those who identify with a larger religious or nonreligious group spend more time productively than those who have no identifying group. Future studies need to be done to see if belonging to a religious group lead to increased productivity.
1. Background Research
This research aims to find a correlation between religion and time allocation. Previous studies have shown correlations between religious beliefs and behavior. For example, a significant negative correlation was found between crime rates and belief in hell (Shariff and Rhemtulla, 2012). Priming people with religious or moral words like “peace” and “prophet” may affect their generosity; people primed with religious concepts were likely to give more money to a stranger than those not primed (Shariff and Norenzayan 2007). Time allocation, the distribution of an individual’s time spent on various activities, is an integral part of human behavior. This research will add to the growing bank of research on religion and behavior, more specifically, economics.
Economics, at its core, is the study of human behavior because it analyzes individual choices. The basis of all economic theory stems from the idea that people make choices rationally and in a way that maximizes benefits and minimizes costs to that individual. Time allocation is part of economics because it analyzes how people choose to spend their time.
For the sake of this study, people of similar religious degrees and similar faiths were compared with one another based on time allocation. Time allocation in itself is an accurate way to measure preferences. Firms use this to distribute resources into capital and consumable categories. In the same way, individuals can do that with their life. Keeping sleeping, eating, and working constant, people can identify how much time (on average) they spend doing different activities (i.e. people can see how much of their time is spent productively versus how much is spent wasted). This reflects the choices made. If every choice is the consequence of the beliefs they hold true (these beliefs determine the marginal benefits and marginal costs of the preference), then people who believe that there is a larger purpose to the individual in and after life are more likely to spend more of their time capitally than those who do not believe. It is upon these assumptions that I rest my research.
In this research, we assume that an individual chooses to act in a way that maximizes benefit and minimizes costs to that individual. For example, if someone sees an object flying at them, they are likely to attempt to dodge it because getting hit would be costlier than the benefit gained from not moving. This example involves little thought as to which option is more beneficial; it is common sense. Other aspects are harder to discern. Those who believe in a higher power are assumed to have a different interpretation of benefits and costs than someone who does not. In this way, those who belong to a religion and believe in a higher power and afterlife will likely choose to spend their time in a way that will benefit them after death. If someone spends time in meditation, she is likely to want to be closer to that higher power, whether that spirit be God or nature or some other universal spirit. Those who do not believe in a higher power will be less concerned with maximizing their afterlife benefit, and find it unnecessary to spend time capitally. These people are also likely to spend more consumable time, since they gain no benefit from acting capitally.
Another fundamental assumption of this research is that people make choices rationally. It is assumed that everyone will act in a way that maximizes benefit and minimizes cost. Sometimes, however, people still choose the option that does not maximize benefits, despite being aware of them. Under this assumption, the data only shows rational choices that maximize benefits.
The quantification of belief, particularly religious, may be difficult, but is possible. As subjective human beings, we are limited in how we can study other people. We can only understand each other through expression, whether that be language or art or music. This is an extremely limited objectivity. Because every individual has his or her own perceptions, it can be impossible to understand the nature of a subjective individual. Belief in itself is completely subjective within the individual; everyone’s perception of it is wildly different, even between people of the same faith. These differences can be shown through the choices they make: going to church or going to the mall (Gruber and Hungerman, 2006), giving five dollars or fifty cents (Shariff and Norezayan 2007), believing more in hell than in heaven (Shariff and Rhemtulla 2012). In this way, it is possible to measure the belief a person has through the way they prefer to spend their time.
To be able to quantify religious beliefs gives science another way to study human behavior. Religion and faith have been an integral part of human history, and paramount to human development throughout the world. Quantifying religious beliefs allows researchers to understand how people believe, giving more insight into the complex workings of the human mind. Being a subjective individual, religion has been very difficult to study objectively. Its quantification changes that. On the other hand, research into belief systems reveals the beautiful similarities and differences between people. Today’s world is fractioned and divided on religious issues, yet ultimately, there is common ground. Belief still affects behavior, no matter how those beliefs and preferences differ. By proving that people make choices the same way—through beliefs—despite differences in those choices, perhaps people can look beyond the superficial issues dividing each other, and coexist.
2. Literature Review
According to research done by Barro and McCleary, economic growth decreases with religious beliefs. Higher church attendance depresses growth because more resources are allocated to the religious sector (2003). The study concludes that higher religious beliefs in the individual stimulate economic growth because it “enhances productivity,” but hinders the society because it takes resources and time. Of the religions studied, Muslims and Catholics participated the most in religious activities and had the strongest belief in both heaven and hell. More research toward this end includes religious correlation to magnanimity and honesty. The findings reinforced the findings of other articles, highlighting the correlation between religion and economic growth both individually and as a society.
Behavior is affected by a belief in hell according to two studies done on the relationship between a belief in hell and preferences. Eum and Wonsub (2011) noted that economic growth correlated to a strong belief in hell. In the second case, Shariff and Rhemtulla show a negative correlation between crime rate and a stronger belief in hell. This shows that even within a religion, there are differences in behavior depending on beliefs in a fearful, punishing God versus beliefs in a benevolent, all-loving God (2012).
Gruber studied the relationship between proximity and religious practice, and how the two may depend on each other to increase their effect (2005). The study found that the more people of the same religion, the easier access to religious practice, and thus more religious participation. For example, Italian Catholics living next to Swedish Lutherans found it more difficult to practice Catholicism than Italian Catholics living next to Polish Catholics. It found, too, that more market density leads to better lives based on the aforementioned factors. Being near one’s own religion will increase pro-social behavior. Future studies include the study of why this is so. This article was most useful to me in that it provided a structure of research that I can use to conduct my own studies, and provides a way of quantifying religion.
A study conducted by Purzycki and Apicella shows how more belief in God leads to prosocial behavior across the world (2016). More than just Western cultures, which dominate this area of research, this article reports how religious belief affects Eastern-cultured communities. They found that in both Eastern and Western societies, the correlation between religiosity and magnanimity toward other religious people (pro-social behavior) were strongly positive. This means that magnanimity is universal, as found in Shariff’s aforementioned study on priming religious concepts.
Campante and Yanagizana studied the effect of Ramadan, the Muslim holy month of fasting, on the labor market (2013). Findings showed that during this time, economic productivity decreased, but overall satisfaction and happiness increased. This article directly studies the relationship between religion and behavior. As people celebrate Ramadan, their behavior changes; they become less productive but happier. This, as well as the other studies, disprove the hypothesis that religion has no correlation to behavior.
3. Methods
A survey was constructed and conducted in the Rockford Area. The survey is composed on three parts: basic information, which ask for gender and age; religious information, including religious and spiritual belief questions; and time allocation information, in which participants were asked to explain how frequently and for how long he or she spent on different activities.
Due to response bias, it was crucial that the questions were asked in a way that minimized bias. It is impossible to ask a question in a way that completely eliminates bias, but a study done in 2009 showed that when asking about religion, it is best to ask "are you [insert religion here]" since often, people can be religious by ethnicity, by culture, or by religion (Kadushin, 2009). So rather than leaving that open for interpretation the "are you..." phrasing allows for the participant to answer whatever he or she most closely identifies with, on the basis of either ethnicity or religion.
It is also important to distinguish between those who believe in heaven and hell, whether or not they are of the same religion. Studies suggest that a stronger belief in hell decreases crime rate compared to those that have a stronger belief in heaven (Shariff and Rhemtulla, 2013). Such differences suggest a difference in behavior and belief, making it necessary to record such information.
Time allocation was measured in ratio of capital to consumer time. The time spent daily on capital activities (organizing finances, exercising, family time, reading, reflecting, creative activities) was divided by the time spent daily on consumer activities (spending time on social media, television, video games, friends). Daily time was measured by multiplying frequency per week and duration and dividing it by seven days per week. Time allocation ratios that are greater than one means that more time is spent on capital activities than consumer ones. Similarly, time allocation ratios that are less than one means that more time is spent on consumer activities than capital ones. Ratios of exactly 1 mean there is an equal amount of time spent on both types of activities.
Gender (male, female, and other) were compared to time allocation ratios (> 1 or < 1) in an independence chi-squared test to see if there was an association between gender and time allocation. The same test was done between three age brackets, excluding any response outside of these parameters: 16-24, 25-49, and 50+. No one younger than 16 was counted because there is no way of discerning if the responses by the child is by choice or by parental influence. Only later in life, when an individual is more independent, can one discern what his or her own beliefs are, as opposed to parental beliefs. A third 2-Sample T-test was done on self-rated spirituality (a 1-10 scale). Time allocation ratios of lower spirituality ratings (0-4) were compared to those with higher spirituality ratings (5-10). These tests were done in order to make sure that the only factor being measured in the data was between religion and time allocate on.
Finally, religions and time allocation ratios were compared in an independence chi-squared test to see if there was an association between religion and time allocation. Responses were categorized into 6 groups: Buddhist, Catholic, Muslim, Nonbeliever, Protestant, and Other. Nonreligion includes Atheist or Agnostic, and Other includes anyone who believes in a higher power, but does not affiliate with any organized religions. This also includes Hindu, Zoroastrian, and any other religion that did not have a large enough sample size to be calculated alone. For the sake of time and simplicity, Protestants include Lutherans, Unitarian Universalists, Baptists, Methodists, Evangelicals, and Nondenominational Christians. Proportions of each group was compared to time allocation ratios being greater or less than 1.
Religious groups’ time allocation ratios were compared by 2-proportion-z tests. Fifteen were done to compare each religion.
4. Results
Results for the preliminary tests on gender, age, and self-rated spirituality were all independent; there was no significant association between these categories and time allocation ratios. Below is a matrix of the religion compared with time allocation.
This research aims to find and identify an association between religious belief and time allocation. Results from the survey identified a significant difference in the time allocation ratios in religious groups versus the “other” religious group. Time allocation ratios were determined by dividing capital and consumer activities. Capital activities are any time spent productively, including any activity done for the benefit of the mind or other people: organizing finances, exercising, family time, reading, reflecting, creative activities. Consumer activities are any wasted time, such as spending time on social media, television, video games, or friends. The results show a significant difference between the “Other” religious group and other religious groups based on an alpha value on p < .1. Due to the limitations of this study, the results are not necessarily accurate. However, the results imply that those who identify with a larger religious or nonreligious group spend more time productively than those who have no identifying group. Future studies need to be done to see if belonging to a religious group lead to increased productivity.
1. Background Research
This research aims to find a correlation between religion and time allocation. Previous studies have shown correlations between religious beliefs and behavior. For example, a significant negative correlation was found between crime rates and belief in hell (Shariff and Rhemtulla, 2012). Priming people with religious or moral words like “peace” and “prophet” may affect their generosity; people primed with religious concepts were likely to give more money to a stranger than those not primed (Shariff and Norenzayan 2007). Time allocation, the distribution of an individual’s time spent on various activities, is an integral part of human behavior. This research will add to the growing bank of research on religion and behavior, more specifically, economics.
Economics, at its core, is the study of human behavior because it analyzes individual choices. The basis of all economic theory stems from the idea that people make choices rationally and in a way that maximizes benefits and minimizes costs to that individual. Time allocation is part of economics because it analyzes how people choose to spend their time.
For the sake of this study, people of similar religious degrees and similar faiths were compared with one another based on time allocation. Time allocation in itself is an accurate way to measure preferences. Firms use this to distribute resources into capital and consumable categories. In the same way, individuals can do that with their life. Keeping sleeping, eating, and working constant, people can identify how much time (on average) they spend doing different activities (i.e. people can see how much of their time is spent productively versus how much is spent wasted). This reflects the choices made. If every choice is the consequence of the beliefs they hold true (these beliefs determine the marginal benefits and marginal costs of the preference), then people who believe that there is a larger purpose to the individual in and after life are more likely to spend more of their time capitally than those who do not believe. It is upon these assumptions that I rest my research.
In this research, we assume that an individual chooses to act in a way that maximizes benefit and minimizes costs to that individual. For example, if someone sees an object flying at them, they are likely to attempt to dodge it because getting hit would be costlier than the benefit gained from not moving. This example involves little thought as to which option is more beneficial; it is common sense. Other aspects are harder to discern. Those who believe in a higher power are assumed to have a different interpretation of benefits and costs than someone who does not. In this way, those who belong to a religion and believe in a higher power and afterlife will likely choose to spend their time in a way that will benefit them after death. If someone spends time in meditation, she is likely to want to be closer to that higher power, whether that spirit be God or nature or some other universal spirit. Those who do not believe in a higher power will be less concerned with maximizing their afterlife benefit, and find it unnecessary to spend time capitally. These people are also likely to spend more consumable time, since they gain no benefit from acting capitally.
Another fundamental assumption of this research is that people make choices rationally. It is assumed that everyone will act in a way that maximizes benefit and minimizes cost. Sometimes, however, people still choose the option that does not maximize benefits, despite being aware of them. Under this assumption, the data only shows rational choices that maximize benefits.
The quantification of belief, particularly religious, may be difficult, but is possible. As subjective human beings, we are limited in how we can study other people. We can only understand each other through expression, whether that be language or art or music. This is an extremely limited objectivity. Because every individual has his or her own perceptions, it can be impossible to understand the nature of a subjective individual. Belief in itself is completely subjective within the individual; everyone’s perception of it is wildly different, even between people of the same faith. These differences can be shown through the choices they make: going to church or going to the mall (Gruber and Hungerman, 2006), giving five dollars or fifty cents (Shariff and Norezayan 2007), believing more in hell than in heaven (Shariff and Rhemtulla 2012). In this way, it is possible to measure the belief a person has through the way they prefer to spend their time.
To be able to quantify religious beliefs gives science another way to study human behavior. Religion and faith have been an integral part of human history, and paramount to human development throughout the world. Quantifying religious beliefs allows researchers to understand how people believe, giving more insight into the complex workings of the human mind. Being a subjective individual, religion has been very difficult to study objectively. Its quantification changes that. On the other hand, research into belief systems reveals the beautiful similarities and differences between people. Today’s world is fractioned and divided on religious issues, yet ultimately, there is common ground. Belief still affects behavior, no matter how those beliefs and preferences differ. By proving that people make choices the same way—through beliefs—despite differences in those choices, perhaps people can look beyond the superficial issues dividing each other, and coexist.
2. Literature Review
According to research done by Barro and McCleary, economic growth decreases with religious beliefs. Higher church attendance depresses growth because more resources are allocated to the religious sector (2003). The study concludes that higher religious beliefs in the individual stimulate economic growth because it “enhances productivity,” but hinders the society because it takes resources and time. Of the religions studied, Muslims and Catholics participated the most in religious activities and had the strongest belief in both heaven and hell. More research toward this end includes religious correlation to magnanimity and honesty. The findings reinforced the findings of other articles, highlighting the correlation between religion and economic growth both individually and as a society.
Behavior is affected by a belief in hell according to two studies done on the relationship between a belief in hell and preferences. Eum and Wonsub (2011) noted that economic growth correlated to a strong belief in hell. In the second case, Shariff and Rhemtulla show a negative correlation between crime rate and a stronger belief in hell. This shows that even within a religion, there are differences in behavior depending on beliefs in a fearful, punishing God versus beliefs in a benevolent, all-loving God (2012).
Gruber studied the relationship between proximity and religious practice, and how the two may depend on each other to increase their effect (2005). The study found that the more people of the same religion, the easier access to religious practice, and thus more religious participation. For example, Italian Catholics living next to Swedish Lutherans found it more difficult to practice Catholicism than Italian Catholics living next to Polish Catholics. It found, too, that more market density leads to better lives based on the aforementioned factors. Being near one’s own religion will increase pro-social behavior. Future studies include the study of why this is so. This article was most useful to me in that it provided a structure of research that I can use to conduct my own studies, and provides a way of quantifying religion.
A study conducted by Purzycki and Apicella shows how more belief in God leads to prosocial behavior across the world (2016). More than just Western cultures, which dominate this area of research, this article reports how religious belief affects Eastern-cultured communities. They found that in both Eastern and Western societies, the correlation between religiosity and magnanimity toward other religious people (pro-social behavior) were strongly positive. This means that magnanimity is universal, as found in Shariff’s aforementioned study on priming religious concepts.
Campante and Yanagizana studied the effect of Ramadan, the Muslim holy month of fasting, on the labor market (2013). Findings showed that during this time, economic productivity decreased, but overall satisfaction and happiness increased. This article directly studies the relationship between religion and behavior. As people celebrate Ramadan, their behavior changes; they become less productive but happier. This, as well as the other studies, disprove the hypothesis that religion has no correlation to behavior.
3. Methods
A survey was constructed and conducted in the Rockford Area. The survey is composed on three parts: basic information, which ask for gender and age; religious information, including religious and spiritual belief questions; and time allocation information, in which participants were asked to explain how frequently and for how long he or she spent on different activities.
Due to response bias, it was crucial that the questions were asked in a way that minimized bias. It is impossible to ask a question in a way that completely eliminates bias, but a study done in 2009 showed that when asking about religion, it is best to ask "are you [insert religion here]" since often, people can be religious by ethnicity, by culture, or by religion (Kadushin, 2009). So rather than leaving that open for interpretation the "are you..." phrasing allows for the participant to answer whatever he or she most closely identifies with, on the basis of either ethnicity or religion.
It is also important to distinguish between those who believe in heaven and hell, whether or not they are of the same religion. Studies suggest that a stronger belief in hell decreases crime rate compared to those that have a stronger belief in heaven (Shariff and Rhemtulla, 2013). Such differences suggest a difference in behavior and belief, making it necessary to record such information.
Time allocation was measured in ratio of capital to consumer time. The time spent daily on capital activities (organizing finances, exercising, family time, reading, reflecting, creative activities) was divided by the time spent daily on consumer activities (spending time on social media, television, video games, friends). Daily time was measured by multiplying frequency per week and duration and dividing it by seven days per week. Time allocation ratios that are greater than one means that more time is spent on capital activities than consumer ones. Similarly, time allocation ratios that are less than one means that more time is spent on consumer activities than capital ones. Ratios of exactly 1 mean there is an equal amount of time spent on both types of activities.
Gender (male, female, and other) were compared to time allocation ratios (> 1 or < 1) in an independence chi-squared test to see if there was an association between gender and time allocation. The same test was done between three age brackets, excluding any response outside of these parameters: 16-24, 25-49, and 50+. No one younger than 16 was counted because there is no way of discerning if the responses by the child is by choice or by parental influence. Only later in life, when an individual is more independent, can one discern what his or her own beliefs are, as opposed to parental beliefs. A third 2-Sample T-test was done on self-rated spirituality (a 1-10 scale). Time allocation ratios of lower spirituality ratings (0-4) were compared to those with higher spirituality ratings (5-10). These tests were done in order to make sure that the only factor being measured in the data was between religion and time allocate on.
Finally, religions and time allocation ratios were compared in an independence chi-squared test to see if there was an association between religion and time allocation. Responses were categorized into 6 groups: Buddhist, Catholic, Muslim, Nonbeliever, Protestant, and Other. Nonreligion includes Atheist or Agnostic, and Other includes anyone who believes in a higher power, but does not affiliate with any organized religions. This also includes Hindu, Zoroastrian, and any other religion that did not have a large enough sample size to be calculated alone. For the sake of time and simplicity, Protestants include Lutherans, Unitarian Universalists, Baptists, Methodists, Evangelicals, and Nondenominational Christians. Proportions of each group was compared to time allocation ratios being greater or less than 1.
Religious groups’ time allocation ratios were compared by 2-proportion-z tests. Fifteen were done to compare each religion.
4. Results
Results for the preliminary tests on gender, age, and self-rated spirituality were all independent; there was no significant association between these categories and time allocation ratios. Below is a matrix of the religion compared with time allocation.
It was found that p= 1.06 x 10-4. Since the p value is less than .05, we reject the null hypothesis that there is no association between religion and time allocation. Therefore, there is a significant evidence that there is association between how people of different religions spend their time. To find the exact association, 15 2-proportion z-tests were done between each religion. It was hypothesized that one group’s proportion of time allocations greater than 1 was different from another religious group’s proportion.
This table shows the p values of the z tests. Each p value was compared to an alpha value of less than 0.1, rather than the 0.05 that is traditionally used.
This table shows the p values of the z tests. Each p value was compared to an alpha value of less than 0.1, rather than the 0.05 that is traditionally used.
Each test was conducted under the assumptions that the sample was representative of the population, and that each group was independent of one another. It was assumed that the sample size of each group was less than 10% of their entire respective population. We also assume that the success-failure condition is satisfied.
5. Discussion
Results show that there is an association between religion and time allocation, but the association is very slight. However, using a comparative p value of .1 instead of .05, we see that the “Other” category, comprised mostly of spiritual but nonconforming religious people, spent their time significantly different from those of other religious groups. Specifically, these people spent significantly more time in consumable activity than in capital activity compared with other groups.
This suggests that those who identify as a certain religion or nonreligion (i.e. Catholicism, Lutheran, Atheist, even Agnostic) spend more of their time purposefully than those who are more ambiguous about their spiritual beliefs. This implies that those who belong to an organized religion seem to have more purpose in what they do compared to those who do not belong to an organized religion.
Looking at the p values, there seems to be a larger association between Protestant and Other compared to other groups. This suggests that Protestants are more motivated to be productive than other religious groups studied, thus verifying the “work ethic” that is so characteristically Protestant.
6. Limitations and Future Studies
Due to the inability to select a perfectly random sample, only those who chose to respond to the survey make up the sample size. This may lead to a skewed sample that does not represent the population due to voluntary and nonresponse bias. Response bias may be present in the wording of the questions and limited available answers. Because people were asked to measure the amount of time they spent doing activities on average, there is most likely a leftward skew such that people tend to say they spend more time on these activities than they do in real life (nap.edu). Furthermore, there is no way of knowing whether or not the response is completely honest. A blind study would be more appropriate if people were to answer honestly, since participants may feel pressure to answer more time productively than consumed.
This survey could be conducted again over a larger area and with increased randomness in order to achieve a more representative sample of the population. Further studies could also pinpoint the exact factors of religion that affect behavior. For example, could church membership affect how much time is spent reading? Finding the mechanisms behind this correlation might show a causation between religion and time allocation.
Also worth noting are the limitations of the questions and survey responses in themselves. Each time allocation answer was divided into units by hours up to ten. I was unable to record anything by half hours, which may skew the data left. Furthermore, the verbiage used in the questions may have altered the responses depending on how each participant interpreted the question.
Future studies could be done studying the correlation between time allocation and other characteristics, particularly those of different cultures and ethnicities. This could distinguish which factor affects human behavior the most.
7. Conclusion
Religion and human behavior are interconnected. This study suggests an association of increased productivity in those who belong to an organized religion or nonreligion compared to those who do not conform to a certain group, but are just “spiritual.” This implies that it may not be so much spiritualism than it is community that enhances productivity. More studies will have to be done in order to determine if the sense of individual belonging within a religion causes increased productivity in how the individual spends his or her time.
5. Discussion
Results show that there is an association between religion and time allocation, but the association is very slight. However, using a comparative p value of .1 instead of .05, we see that the “Other” category, comprised mostly of spiritual but nonconforming religious people, spent their time significantly different from those of other religious groups. Specifically, these people spent significantly more time in consumable activity than in capital activity compared with other groups.
This suggests that those who identify as a certain religion or nonreligion (i.e. Catholicism, Lutheran, Atheist, even Agnostic) spend more of their time purposefully than those who are more ambiguous about their spiritual beliefs. This implies that those who belong to an organized religion seem to have more purpose in what they do compared to those who do not belong to an organized religion.
Looking at the p values, there seems to be a larger association between Protestant and Other compared to other groups. This suggests that Protestants are more motivated to be productive than other religious groups studied, thus verifying the “work ethic” that is so characteristically Protestant.
6. Limitations and Future Studies
Due to the inability to select a perfectly random sample, only those who chose to respond to the survey make up the sample size. This may lead to a skewed sample that does not represent the population due to voluntary and nonresponse bias. Response bias may be present in the wording of the questions and limited available answers. Because people were asked to measure the amount of time they spent doing activities on average, there is most likely a leftward skew such that people tend to say they spend more time on these activities than they do in real life (nap.edu). Furthermore, there is no way of knowing whether or not the response is completely honest. A blind study would be more appropriate if people were to answer honestly, since participants may feel pressure to answer more time productively than consumed.
This survey could be conducted again over a larger area and with increased randomness in order to achieve a more representative sample of the population. Further studies could also pinpoint the exact factors of religion that affect behavior. For example, could church membership affect how much time is spent reading? Finding the mechanisms behind this correlation might show a causation between religion and time allocation.
Also worth noting are the limitations of the questions and survey responses in themselves. Each time allocation answer was divided into units by hours up to ten. I was unable to record anything by half hours, which may skew the data left. Furthermore, the verbiage used in the questions may have altered the responses depending on how each participant interpreted the question.
Future studies could be done studying the correlation between time allocation and other characteristics, particularly those of different cultures and ethnicities. This could distinguish which factor affects human behavior the most.
7. Conclusion
Religion and human behavior are interconnected. This study suggests an association of increased productivity in those who belong to an organized religion or nonreligion compared to those who do not conform to a certain group, but are just “spiritual.” This implies that it may not be so much spiritualism than it is community that enhances productivity. More studies will have to be done in order to determine if the sense of individual belonging within a religion causes increased productivity in how the individual spends his or her time.
Acknowledgements
Thank you to everyone who helped me in my research through participation and in other ways. A very special thanks toHoly Family Catholic Church; Cherry Valley United Methodist; Mosque of Greater Rockford; Wat Phra Dhammakaya Temple; Spring Creek United Church of Christ; Unitarian Universalist Church; St. Anskar's Episcopal Church; Unity in Diversity Rockford & Interfaith Women of Rockford; Dr. Azim Shariff, University of Oregon; Dr. Nathan Grawe, Carleton College; Mr. John Rauh; Mrs. Karen Hoover; Monay Zayed (film); Auburn High School (printing); Meg's Daily Grind; Womanspace; Forest City Tennis Center; Ace Percussion; Google Forms; Weebly.com
Works Referenced
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Campante, F. and Yanagizawa-Drott, D. (2013). Does Religion Affect Economic Growth and Happiness? Evidence from Ramadan. Harvard Kennedy School.
Eum, Wonsub. (2011). Religion and Economic Development: A Study of Religious Variables Influencing GDP Growth Over Countries. University of California, Berkley.
Gruber, J.H. (2005). Religious Market Structure, Religious Participation, and Outcomes: Is Religion Good for You? Advances in Economic Analysis & Policy 5 (1). 1-30.
Gruber, J., and Hungerman, D. (2006). “The Church vs. The Mall: What Happens When Religion Faces Increased Secular Competition?” National Bureau of Economic Research. Working paper. http://www.nber.org/papers/w12410.pdf.
Kadushin, C (2009). Asking About Religion. Retrieved from
https://www.brandeis.edu/cmjs/conferences/demographyconf/pdfs/Kadushin_AskingReligion.pdf.
Purzycki, B.G., Apicella, C., Atkinson, Q.D., Cohen, E., McNamara, R.A., Willard, A.K.,…Hendrich, J. (2016). Moralistic gods, supernatural punishment and the expansion of human sociality. Nature 00: 00. doi: 10.1038.
Shariff, A. F. & Norenzayan, A. (2007). God Is Watching You: Priming God Concepts Increases Prosocial Behavior in an Anonymous Economic Game. Association for Psychological Science, 18 (9), 803-809.
Shariff AF, Rhemtulla M (2012) Divergent Effects of Beliefs in Heaven and Hell on National Crime Rates. PLoS ONE 7(6): e39048. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039048
Campante, F. and Yanagizawa-Drott, D. (2013). Does Religion Affect Economic Growth and Happiness? Evidence from Ramadan. Harvard Kennedy School.
Eum, Wonsub. (2011). Religion and Economic Development: A Study of Religious Variables Influencing GDP Growth Over Countries. University of California, Berkley.
Gruber, J.H. (2005). Religious Market Structure, Religious Participation, and Outcomes: Is Religion Good for You? Advances in Economic Analysis & Policy 5 (1). 1-30.
Gruber, J., and Hungerman, D. (2006). “The Church vs. The Mall: What Happens When Religion Faces Increased Secular Competition?” National Bureau of Economic Research. Working paper. http://www.nber.org/papers/w12410.pdf.
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https://www.brandeis.edu/cmjs/conferences/demographyconf/pdfs/Kadushin_AskingReligion.pdf.
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